Schema (pl. Schemata): Mental frameworks used to organize and interpret new information.

Working Memory: The part of the memory system where information is temporarily held and actively processed.

Cognitive Load: The amount of mental effort required to process information in the working memory.

Metacognition: The awareness and regulation of one's own thinking processes ("learning how to learn").

Long-Term Memory: The permanent storage of information, divided into Declarative (facts/rules) and Procedural (how to do things).

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The distance between what a learner can do alone and what they can achieve with the guidance of a "More Knowledgeable Other" (MKO).

Scaffolding: Temporary support structures (clues, encouragement, simplified steps) provided by a teacher to help a student master a task.

Private Speech: The "self-talk" children use to guide their own thinking; Vygotsky viewed this as the transition from social talk to internal thought.

Mediation: The use of tools (language, signs, symbols) to bridge the gap between the individual and the environment.