Dr. Moulay Tahar University, Saida

Faculty of Letters, Languages and Arts

Department of English Language and Literature

 

Educational Psychology

 

 

 

Teacher: Dr. Bouaricha                        Level: M1

 

 

 

Academic Year : 2025-2026

 

The Learning Process: Perspectives, Basic Theories, and Models

 

 

Introduction :

This course introduces you to the major psychological theories that explain how learning occurs and how these theories inform effective teaching practices. The examination of Behaviourism, Classical and Operant Conditioning, and both Psychological and Social Constructivism, would help you develop a deeper understanding of how learners acquire knowledge, skills, and behaviours in educational settings. The course also explores teachers’ diverse perspectives on learning and how instructional choices reflect underlying theoretical beliefs. Hence, this lecture equips you (as future educators) with the conceptual foundations needed to interpret, guide, and improve learning processes in the classroom.

1. Teachers’ Perspectives on Learning

Teachers’ beliefs about learning shape instructional choices, classroom management, and assessment practices. Understanding these perspectives helps future educators adapt methods to diverse learners.

 

Teachers’ Perspectives on Learning

1. Transmission Perspective
1.1 Learning is the passive transfer of knowledge from teacher to student. Teachers act as knowledge authorities.
“In traditional schools, education often consisted of the mere transmission of knowledge from teacher to pupil, rather than active engagement in the learning process” (Dewey, 1938, p. 24).

2. Behaviorist Perspective
2.1 Learning is observable behavior change shaped by reinforcement and punishment.
“Behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences; reinforcement increases the probability of a response, while punishment decreases it” (Skinner, 1953, p. 50).

2.2 Classical (Respondent) Conditioning – Learning through association.
“A conditioned reflex is the result of the repeated association of a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally evokes a response” (Pavlov, 1927, p. 21).

2.3 Operant Conditioning – Learning through reinforcement and punishment.
“Operant behavior is that which acts on the environment to produce consequences, and the consequences determine whether the behavior will occur again” (Skinner, 1953, p. 35).

3. Constructivist Perspective
3.1 Learning is active and student-centered; learners construct knowledge from prior experiences.
“The structure of knowledge is actively built by the learner, not passively received from the environment” (Bruner, 1966, p. 12).

3.2 Cognitive Constructivism – Focus on individual cognition, discovery learning, and scaffolding.
“Intelligence is what the child uses to adapt to the environment…learning occurs as the child constructs an understanding based on prior knowledge” (Piaget, 1972, p. 27).

“Teachers’ beliefs about learning significantly influence what, how, and why they teach, which in turn affects student outcomes” (Pajares, 1992, p. 307).

 

3.3 Social Constructivism – Learning occurs through social interaction, language, and guidance; Zone of Proximal Development.
“Learning which is oriented toward developmental levels that have already been reached is ineffective from the viewpoint of the child’s overall development. What is needed is learning that is in advance of development, enabling the learner to construct knowledge through interaction and guidance” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 89).

4. Humanistic Perspective
4.1 Emphasizes learner affectivity, motivation, and self-actualization. Teachers act as facilitators of personal growth and autonomy.
“The only person who is educated is the one who has learned how to learn and change” (Rogers, 1969, p. 18).

 

 

2. Major Theories and Models of Learning

Learning theories explain how students acquire, process, and retain knowledge. Two major frameworks in educational psychology are Behaviourism and Constructivism.

A. Behaviourism

Behaviourism focuses on observable changes in behaviour, often emphasizing reinforcement, punishment, and conditioning. It is teacher-centered and relies on structured environments and measurable outcomes.

“The behavior of an organism is shaped and maintained by its consequences; learning is the process of acquiring new behaviors through interaction with the environment” (Skinner, 1953, p. 50).

A.1 Respondent (Classical) Conditioning

• Developed by Pavlov (1927), learning occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.
• Educational Implications: Associating positive stimuli with learning tasks can enhance motivation.

Key Concepts:

• Extinction: Learned behavior diminishes when reinforcement stops.
• Generalization: Learners apply a response to similar stimuli.
• Discrimination: Learners distinguish between different stimuli and respond accordingly.

Example: A student learns to associate praise (unconditioned stimulus) with correct answers (conditioned response), enhancing participation.

A.2 Operant Conditioning

• Developed by Skinner (1953), focuses on reinforcement and punishment to shape voluntary behaviors.
• Positive Reinforcement: Rewarding desired behavior (e.g., praise, stickers, bonus points).
• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to strengthen behavior.
• Punishment: Discouraging undesired behavior (e.g., timeout, reduced privileges).
• Shaping: Gradually reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.

Example: In language learning, rewarding students for correct pronunciation reinforces accurate speech patterns.

B. Constructivism

Constructivism emphasizes active learner engagement, where knowledge is constructed through experience, reflection, and social interaction. Teachers act as facilitators rather than mere transmitters of knowledge.

B.1 Psychological Constructivism

  Associated with Piaget (1972) and Bruner (1966).

  Learning is individual, cognitive, and developmental, dependent on prior knowledge.

  Students actively organize information, solve problems, and create understanding.
“The structure of knowledge is actively built by the learner, not passively received from the environment” (Bruner, 1966, p. 12).

“Intelligence is what the child uses to adapt to the environment…learning occurs as the child constructs an understanding based on prior knowledge” (Piaget, 1972, p. 27).

  Example: Learners in an ESP classroom analyze real medical texts to construct understanding of discipline-specific vocabulary and structures.

B.2 Social Constructivism

  Associated with Vygotsky (1978).

  Learning occurs socially, mediated by language, culture, and interaction.

  Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The difference between what learners can do independently and with guidance.

  Teachers scaffold learning to support development within the ZPD.
“Learning which is oriented toward developmental levels that have already been reached is ineffective. What is needed is learning that is in advance of development, enabling the learner to construct knowledge through interaction and guidance” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 89).

Example: Collaborative group work in EFL classes allows students to co-construct knowledge, supported by teacher guidance.

3. Summary Table

Theory	Key Authors	Key Concepts	Educational Implications
Behaviourism	Pavlov, Skinner	Conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, shaping	Structured instruction, positive reinforcement, measurable outcomes
Psychological Constructivism	Piaget, Bruner	Active learning, prior knowledge, cognitive development	Student-centered tasks, problem-solving, reflection
Social Constructivism	Vygotsky	Social interaction, ZPD, scaffolding	Collaborative learning, guided practice, peer support

4. Pedagogical Implications

• Teachers should balance teacher-directed and learner-centered approaches depending on context.
• Behaviourist techniques are useful for foundational knowledge, classroom routines, and skill practice.
• Constructivist methods promote higher-order thinking, critical analysis, and real-world application.
• Effective classroom management combines reinforcement strategies with scaffolded learning activities.

“Learning is most effective when instruction considers both observable behavior changes and the internal construction of knowledge through social and cognitive processes” (Ormrod, 2017, p. 43).

References (APA 7th Edition)

• Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Harvard University Press.
• Ormrod, J. E. (2017). Educational psychology: Developing learners (9th ed.). Pearson.
• Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62(3), 307–332.
• Piaget, J. (1972). The psychology of the child. Basic Books.
• Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan.
• Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.